Clinical & Scientific References for Somatic Therapy

The therapeutic approaches described throughout this site draw on research and clinical writing in trauma psychology, neuroscience, attachment theory, nervous system regulation, somatic therapy, neurofeedback, and medicine-assisted psychotherapy. This reference list reflects key scientific and clinical sources that inform this work. It is not exhaustive, but highlights influential research and clinical perspectives shaping contemporary, trauma-informed practice.

Trauma, Attachment, and Nervous System Regulation

Research in trauma psychology and neuroscience has shaped current understanding of how overwhelming experiences affect the nervous system, attachment, and responses to stress and safety. The following sources have contributed to this body of work.

Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment. Basic Books.

Davidson, R. J. (2012). The emotional life of your brain. Hudson Street Press.

Davidson, R. J., & McEwen, B. S. (2012). Social influences on neuroplasticity: stress and interventions to promote well-being. Nature neuroscience, 15(5), 689-695.

Herman, J. L. (1992). Trauma and recovery. Basic Books.

Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full catastrophe living. Delacorte.

Lanius, R. A., Bluhm, R. L., & Frewen, P. A. (2011). How understanding the neurobiology of complex post-traumatic stress disorder can inform clinical practice: A social cognitive and affective neuroscience approach. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 124(5), 331–348.

Maté, G. (2003). When the body says no: The cost of hidden stress. Vintage Canada.

McEwen, B. S. (2007). Physiology and neurobiology of stress and adaptation: Central role of the brain. Physiological Reviews, 87(3), 873–904.

Panksepp, J. (1998). Affective neuroscience: The foundations of human and animal emotions. Oxford University Press.

Porges, S. W. (2011). The polyvagal theory: Neurophysiological foundations of emotions, attachment, communication, and self-regulation. W. W. Norton & Company.

Schore, A. N. (1994). Affect regulation and the origin of the self: The neurobiology of emotional development. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Schore, A. N. (2003). Affect regulation and the repair of the self. W. W. Norton & Company.

Schore, A. N. (2012). The science of the art of psychotherapy. W. W. Norton & Company.

Siegel, D. J. (1999). The developing mind: How relationships and the brain interact to shape who we are. Guilford Press.

Siegel, D. J. (2020). The developing mind (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.

Thayer, J. F., & Lane, R. D. (2000). A model of neurovisceral integration in emotion regulation and dysregulation. Journal of Affective Disorders, 61(3), 201–216.

Treleaven, D. A. (2018). Trauma-sensitive mindfulness: Practices for safe and transformative healing. W. W. Norton & Company.

Somatic Therapy and the Body in Trauma

Somatic therapy approaches emphasize the role of bodily awareness, interoception, and nervous system regulation in trauma treatment. The following sources represent key contributions to understanding how physical sensations and physiological processes are integrated into healing.

Bainbridge Cohen, B. (1993). Sensing, feeling, and action: The experiential anatomy of body–mind centering. Contact Editions.

Craig, A. D. (2002). How do you feel? Interoception: The sense of the physiological condition of the body. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 3(8), 655–666.

Levine, P. A. (1997). Waking the tiger: Healing trauma. North Atlantic Books.

Levine, P. A. (2010). In an unspoken voice: How the body releases trauma and restores goodness. North Atlantic Books.

Ogden, P., Minton, K., & Pain, C. (2006). Trauma and the body: A sensorimotor approach to psychotherapy. W. W. Norton & Company.

Payne, P., Levine, P. A., & Crane-Godreau, M. A. (2015). Somatic experiencing: Using interoception and proprioception as core elements of trauma therapy. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 124489.

Rothschild, B. (2000). The body remembers: The psychophysiology of trauma and trauma treatment. W. W. Norton & Company.

van der Kolk, B. A. (2014). The body keeps the score: Brain, mind, and body in the healing of trauma. Viking.

Trauma, Dissociation, and Memory Reconsolidation

Research in memory reconsolidation and emotional learning has shaped current understanding of how traumatic memories are encoded and how they can be transformed through therapeutic processes. The following sources represent key contributions to this area.

Alberini, C. M., & LeDoux, J. E. (2013). Memory reconsolidation. Current Biology, 23(17), R746–R750.

Brand, B. L., Schielke, H. J., Schiavone, F., & Lanius, R. A. (2022). Finding solid ground: Overcoming obstacles in trauma treatment. Oxford University Press.

Brand, B. L., Schielke, H. J., Putnam, K. T., Pierorazio, N. A., Nester, M. S., Robertson, J., Myrick, A. C., Loewenstein, R. J., Putnam, F. W., Steele, K., Boon, S., & Lanius, R. A. (2025). A randomized controlled trial assists individuals with complex trauma and dissociation in Finding Solid Ground. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. Advance online publication.

Ecker, B., Ticic, R., & Hulley, L. (2012). Unlocking the emotional brain: Eliminating symptoms at their roots using memory reconsolidation. Routledge.

Lanius, U. F., Paulsen, S. L., & Corrigan, F. M. (2014). Neurobiology and treatment of traumatic dissociation. Springer.

Nader, K., Schafe, G. E., & LeDoux, J. E. (2000). Fear memories require protein synthesis in the amygdala for reconsolidation after retrieval. Nature, 406(6797), 722–726.

Schauer, M., & Elbert, T. (2015). Dissociation following traumatic stress. Zeitschrift für Psychologie / Journal of Psychology.

Sinclair, A. H., & Barense, M. D. (2019). Prediction error and memory reactivation: How incomplete reminders drive reconsolidation. Trends in Neurosciences, 42(10), 727–739.

Deep Brain Reorienting (DBR)

Deep Brain Reorienting is a neuroscience-informed psychotherapy approach focused on brainstem orienting responses involved in trauma and attachment shock. The following sources represent key contributions to this emerging model.

Corrigan, F. M. (2004). Psychotherapy as assisted homeostasis: Activation of emotional processing mediated by the anterior cingulate cortex. Medical Hypotheses, 63(6), 968–973.

Corrigan, F. M., Fisher, J. J., & Nutt, D. J. (2011). Autonomic dysregulation and the window of tolerance model of the effects of complex emotional trauma. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 25(1), 17–25.

Corrigan, F. M., & Hull, A. M. (2015). Neglect of the complex: Why psychotherapy for post-traumatic clinical presentations is often ineffective. BJPsych Bulletin, 39(2), 86–89.

Corrigan, F. M., Young, H. C., & Christie-Sands, J. (2023). Deep brain reorienting: Understanding the neuroscience of trauma, attachment wounding, and DBR psychotherapy. Routledge.

Kearney, B. E., Corrigan, F. M., Frewen, P. A., Nevill, S., Harricharan, S., Andrews, K., Jetly, R., McKinnon, M. C., & Lanius, R. A. (2023). A randomized controlled trial of deep brain reorienting: A neuroscientifically guided treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 14(2), 2240691.

Anxiety and Emotion-Focused Treatment

Research across cognitive-behavioural, emotion-focused, psychodynamic, and somatic approaches has shaped current understanding of how anxiety is maintained and treated. The following sources represent key contributions to emotional processing, learning, and nervous system regulation in anxiety treatment.

Abbass, A. A. (2015). Reaching through resistance: Advanced psychotherapy techniques. Seven Leaves Press.

Barlow, D. H. (2002). Anxiety and its disorders: The nature and treatment of anxiety and panic. Guilford Press.

Brown, B. (2010). The gifts of imperfection. Hazelden Publishing.

Craske, M. G., Treanor, M., Conway, C. C., Zbozinek, T., & Vervliet, B. (2014). Maximizing exposure therapy: An inhibitory learning approach. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 58, 10–23.

Fosha, D. (2000). The transforming power of affect: A model for accelerated change. Basic Books.

Greenberg, L. S. (2002). Emotion-focused therapy: Coaching clients to work through their feelings. American Psychological Association.

Hofmann, S. G., Asnaani, A., Vonk, I. J., Sawyer, A. T., & Fang, A. (2012). The efficacy of cognitive behavioral therapy: A review of meta-analyses. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 36(5), 427–440.

Neuner, F., et al. (2020). Narrative exposure therapy for PTSD. American Psychological Association.

Yalom, I. D. (1980). Existential psychotherapy. Basic Books.

EMDR and Trauma Treatment Guidelines

EMDR is a widely researched trauma therapy supported by major clinical guidelines for PTSD. The following sources represent key contributions to its theoretical foundations, protocols, and clinical evidence, as well as related trauma treatment approaches.

American Psychological Association. (2017). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) therapy. American Psychological Association.

Chen, Y. R., Hung, K. W., Tsai, J. C., Chu, H., Chung, M. H., Chen, S. R., … & Chou, K. R. (2014). Efficacy of eye-movement desensitization and reprocessing for patients with posttraumatic-stress disorder: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. PloS one, 9(8), e103676.

Courtois, C. A., & Ford, J. D. (2013). Treatment of complex trauma. Guilford Press.

International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies. (2019). PTSD prevention and treatment guidelines.

Shapiro, F. (2017). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) therapy: Basic principles, protocols, and procedures (3rd ed.). Guilford Press.

World Health Organization. (2013). Guidelines for the management of conditions specifically related to stress. WHO.

Medicine-Assisted Psychotherapy and Psychedelic Research

Recent research has explored how medicines such as ketamine, MDMA, and psilocybin may support therapeutic processes through increased neuroplasticity and emotional processing within structured clinical settings. The following sources represent key contributions to this emerging area.

Carhart-Harris, R. L., & Friston, K. J. (2019). REBUS and the anarchic brain: Toward a unified model of the brain action of psychedelics. Pharmacological Reviews, 71(3), 316–344.

Carhart-Harris, R. L., Erritzoe, D., Haijen, E. C. H. M., Kaelen, M., & Watts, R. (2018). Psychedelics and connectedness. Psychopharmacology, 235(2), 547–550.

Carhart-Harris, R. L., Roseman, L., Bolstridge, M., Demetriou, L., Pannekoek, J. N., Wall, M. B., … & Nutt, D. J. (2017). Psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression: fMRI-measured brain mechanisms. Scientific reports, 7(1), 1-11.

Dore, J., et al. (2019). Ketamine-assisted psychotherapy (KAP): Patient demographics, clinical data and outcomes. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 51(2), 189–198.

Feder, A., et al. (2014). Efficacy of intravenous ketamine for treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. JAMA Psychiatry, 71(6), 681–688.

Feduccia, A. A., & Mithoefer, M. C. (2018). MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for PTSD: Underlying mechanisms. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 84, 221–228.

Griffiths, R. R., Johnson, M. W., Richards, W. A., Richards, B. D., McCann, U., & Jesse, R. (2011). Psilocybin occasioned mystical-type experiences: immediate and persisting dose-related effects. Psychopharmacology, 218(4), 649-665.

Health Canada. (2022). Special access program for drugs.

Krystal, J. H., Karper, L. P., Seibyl, J. P., Freeman, G. K., Delaney, R., Bremner, J. D., … & Charney, D. S. (1994). Subanesthetic effects of the noncompetitive NMDA antagonist, ketamine, in humans: psychotomimetic, perceptual, cognitive, and neuroendocrine responses. Archives of general psychiatry, 51(3), 199-214.

Labate, B. C., & Cavnar, C. (2014). The therapeutic use of ayahuasca. Springer.

Mash, D. C., Duque, L., Page, B., & Allen-Ferdinand, K. (2018). Ibogaine detoxification transitions opioid and cocaine abusers between dependence and abstinence: clinical observations and treatment outcomes. Frontiers in pharmacology, 9, 345105.

Mitchell, J. M., Ot’alora G, M., van der Kolk, B., Shannon, S., Bogenschutz, M., Gelfand, Y., … & Yazar-Klosinski, B. (2023). MDMA-assisted therapy for moderate to severe PTSD: a randomized, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial. Nature Medicine, 29(10), 2473-2480.

Mithoefer, M. C., Wagner, M. T., Mithoefer, A. T., Jerome, L., & Doblin, R. (2019). MDMA-assisted psychotherapy treatment manual. Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS).

Neurofeedback and Brain Regulation

Neurofeedback research has examined how brain activity patterns can be measured and trained to support improved regulation of attention, emotion, and nervous system stability. The following sources represent key contributions to this field.

Coben, R., & Myers, T. E. (2010). The relative efficacy of connectivity guided and symptom based EEG biofeedback for autistic disorders. Applied psychophysiology and biofeedback, 35(1), 13-23.

Coben, R., Middlebrooks, M., Lightstone, H., & Corbell, M. (2018). Four channel multivariate coherence training: development and evidence in support of a new form of neurofeedback. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 12, 729.

Duffy, F. H., Hughes, J. R., Miranda, F., Bernad, P., & Cook, P. (1994). Status of quantitative EEG (QEEG) in clinical practice, 1994. Clinical Electroencephalography, 25(4), vi-xxii.

Duke, G., Yotter, C. N., Sharifian, B., Duke, G., & Petersen, S. (2024). The effectiveness of microcurrent neurofeedback on depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, and quality of life. Journal of the American Association of Nurse Practitioners, 36(2), 100-109.

Hammond, D. C. (2005). Neurofeedback with anxiety and affective disorders. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics, 14(1), 105-123.

Hammond, D. C. (2010). QEEG evaluation of the LENS treatment of TBI. Journal of Neurotherapy, 14(2), 170-177.

Hammond, D. C. (2010). QEEG evaluation of the LENS treatment of TBI. Journal of Neurotherapy, 14(2), 170-177.

Kamiya, J. (1969). Operant control of the EEG alpha rhythm and some of its reported effects on consciousness. Altered states of consciousness, 519-529.

Larsen, S., Harrington, K., & Hicks, S. (2006). The LENS (low energy neurofeedback system): A clinical outcomes study on one hundred patients at Stone Mountain Center, New York. Journal of Neurotherapy, 10(2-3), 69-78.

May, G., Benson, R., Balon, R., & Boutros, N. (2013). Neurofeedback and traumatic brain injury: A literature review. Annals of clinical psychiatry, 25(4), 289-296.

Nicholson, A. A., Rabellino, D., Densmore, M., Frewen, P. A., Paret, C., Kluetsch, R., … & Lanius, R. A. (2018). Intrinsic connectivity network dynamics in PTSD during amygdala downregulation using real‐time fMRI neurofeedback: A preliminary analysis. Human Brain Mapping, 39(11), 4258-4275.

Nuwer, M. (1997). Assessment of digital EEG, quantitative EEG, and EEG brain mapping: Report of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Clinical Neurophysiology Society*[RETIRED]. Neurology, 49(1), 277-292.

Panisch, L. S., & Hai, A. H. (2020). The effectiveness of using neurofeedback in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder: a systematic review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 21(3), 541-550.

Sitaram, R., Ros, T., Stoeckel, L., Haller, S., Scharnowski, F., Lewis-Peacock, J., … & Sulzer, J. (2017). Closed-loop brain training: the science of neurofeedback. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 18(2), 86-100.

Sterman, M. B. (2000). Basic concepts and clinical findings in the treatment of seizure disorders with EEG operant conditioning. Clinical electroencephalography, 31(1), 45-55.

Thatcher, R. W. (2010). Validity and reliability of quantitative electroencephalography. Journal of Neurotherapy, 14(2), 122-152.

Thatcher, R. W. (2012). Coherence, phase differences, phase shift, and phase lock in EEG/ERP analyses. Developmental neuropsychology, 37(6), 476-496.

Van der Kolk, B. A., Hodgdon, H., Gapen, M., Musicaro, R., Suvak, M. K., Hamlin, E., & Spinazzola, J. (2016). A randomized controlled study of neurofeedback for chronic PTSD. PloS one, 11(12), e0166752.

Explore how these research areas are applied in practice through somatic and neuroscience-informed therapy: